Introduction

Rapid advancements in humanoid robotics and artificial intelligence are bringing us closer to a reality once confined to the realm of science fiction.

In this article, History Future Now explores the potential consequences of the rise of humanoid robots for the future of work and society as a whole. We will begin by examining the current state of humanoid robotics and the key players driving innovation in this field, from Boston Dynamics to Tesla to NVIDIA and beyond.

From there, we will look at the historical parallels between the rise of robots and the institution of slavery in ancient civilisations like Greece, Rome, and the Ottoman Empire. We will explore how the influx of slave labor transformed these societies, creating new forms of social stratification and economic inequality, and how the practice of individuals selling themselves into slavery to escape poverty or debt foreshadows the potential risks of widespread adoption of robots.

Next, we will turn to the modern phenomenon of mass migration and its similarities to the dynamics of slavery and robotics. We will examine how the desire for cheap, exploitable labor has driven both the historical slave trade and contemporary patterns of global migration, and how the influx of immigrant workers has transformed economies and societies around the world.

We then look at the potential impacts of humanoid robots on the future of work and inequality. We will explore how the integration of these technologies into the workforce could lead to widespread job displacement and social upheaval, particularly for low-skilled workers and immigrant communities.

From there, we consider the role of robots in the future of space exploration and colonisation. We may think that this is the dawn of a beautiful relationship between robots and humans but the reality is that robots will be better at this than humans.

Humanoid robots are coming and we are not going to be able to stop them. This article helps to paint a picture as to what life will be like. Most people won’t find it pretty.

Part 1: The Advent of Humanoid Robots

The field of humanoid robotics has made remarkable strides in recent years, bringing us closer to a future where robots coexist alongside humans in various aspects of life.

In Part 1 we are just going to introduce some of the leading companies in this space. The list is not exhaustive and new companies are emerging all the time, demonstrating a rich ecosystem of individuals, companies and investors. Most companies are focusing on entire robots while others are focused on individual components such as facial expressions, hands or AI based operating systems. The aim is simply to show that humanoid robots are significantly more advanced than most people realise, they are improving rapidly every few months, and they will be commercially viable faster than you imagine.

By the time you read this article some of the companies will have failed, been acquired or fallen by the wayside. New companies will have emerged. But ultimately we are moving rapidly to a general purpose humanoid robot that fills most of our science fiction fantasies at a price point that is the equivalent of a family car. It is these two final components that are critical. They need to be fully versatile and cheap enough to be affordable as a mass market invention. Given what they are - a relatively  low weight series of electric motors on a chassis with a battery pack, sensors, a GPU processor and an operating system- there is no reason for them not to be the price of a family car once produced at scale.

With that beings said here are some of the leading players:

Boston Dynamics, is the grand-daddy in the field of robotics and continues to push the envelope with its Atlas humanoid robot. It is very impressive and can do stunts that most humans cannot do. Although Atlas may not fall under the $50,000 price point in the near future, its advanced agility, strength, and dexterity make it a benchmark for humanoid robot capabilities. From parkour skills and backflips to navigating complex terrain and performing delicate tasks, Atlas showcases the cutting edge of humanoid robotic movement. Boston Dynamics has been on this path for a long time and it is ahead of most. But new companies have emerged since 2022 that have made impressive progress and may end up eclipsing Boston Dynamics.

Tesla's humanoid robot, Optimus, is another notable contender in the field. Optimus is designed to perform a wide range of tasks in factories and homes. Tesla is relatively new to the field but has made huge advances in 2023-2024. By leveraging Tesla's expertise in AI and electric motors, Optimus aims to achieve smooth and efficient movement at a target price point below $20,000, making it a strong candidate for widespread adoption. Musk has also demonstrated that he understands the challenges of mass production, which is a big advantage over other companies in this space. As with cars, the Tesla robot is vertically integrated with most of the components including software done in house.

Figure.ai's Figure 01 robot is a general-purpose, AI-powered humanoid designed for diverse applications in manufacturing, logistics, and beyond. With a focus on affordability and versatility, Figure 01 is intended to be self-reliant and capable of working alongside humans in various tasks. Its human-like form factor allows for seamless integration with existing infrastructure, making it a promising alternative to the single-function robots mainly used in industry today. They have done a deal with OpenAI which has resulted in some remarkable videos of it operating and talking to people.

Engineered Arts' Ameca robot is different and pushes the boundaries of human-like appearance and interaction. With its incredibly realistic facial expressions and detailed hands, Ameca represents a significant step forward in human-robot interaction. Ameca's lifelike features show how we can expect more natural and intuitive communication between humans and robots.

Unitree H1 is another impressive humanoid robot, focusing on power and athleticism. It is likely that Chinese companies will end up dominating this field and there are a lot of overlaps with electric car manufacturing, where Chinese companies already dominate. Holding the record for the fastest bipedal robot at 3.3 meters per second, the Unitree H1 demonstrates remarkable strength and dynamic movements. Its impressive athletic capabilities (it can do backflips) position it as a strong candidate for tasks requiring both speed and power, while still being expected to be around $90,000.

Finally NVIDIA, the chipmaker behind most of the AI systems around the world, has announced it is developing an operating system and chipset specifically for humanoid robots. This is an important innovation as many companies, such as Boston Dynamics, are clearly able to build sophisticated hardware but may not be able to develop the brains at the same time.  NVIDIA aims to be the Microsoft and Intel of the robot world.

The progress made by these companies and their respective humanoid robots highlights the rapid pace of development in this field. As these technologies continue to advance and become more affordable, the potential for widespread adoption grows, promising to revolutionize industries and transform the way we live and work.

However, the integration of humanoid robots into society also raises important questions and concerns. As these machines become more capable and autonomous, their impact on the job market, social dynamics, and human interactions will be significant. The ethical implications of creating robots that closely resemble humans and the potential for these technologies to exacerbate existing inequalities must also be carefully considered.

We now move onto Part 2, looking back to the last time we had a cheap general purpose humanoid labour force. We called them slaves.

Part 2: The Shadows of Slavery

To fully comprehend the potential implications of humanoid robots on society, it is essential to delve into the historical institution of slavery and its profound impact on ancient civilizations such as Greece, Rome, and the Ottoman Empire.

By examining the parallels between slavery and the integration of advanced robotics into the workforce, we can gain valuable insights into the potential risks and challenges that lie ahead.

In ancient Greece, slavery was a widespread and deeply entrenched practice. Slaves were considered the property of their owners and had no legal rights or protections. They were acquired through various means, including conquest, piracy, and trade with other societies. The city-state of Athens, renowned for its cultural and intellectual achievements, had an exceptionally high proportion of slaves, with estimates suggesting that they outnumbered free citizens.

The treatment of slaves in ancient Greece varied widely, depending on factors such as the individual owner and the specific role of the slave. Some slaves were subjected to brutal and inhumane conditions, forced to work in dangerous mines or toil in the fields under the scorching sun. Others, particularly those with specialized skills or knowledge, held more privileged positions within households or businesses. These slaves might serve as tutors, artisans, or even trusted advisors to their owners.

In ancient Rome, slavery was an integral part of the social and economic fabric. The Roman Empire's vast, multi century, territorial expansions brought a constant influx of slaves from conquered lands, with estimates suggesting that up to 40% of the population in Italy were enslaved during the late Republic. Slaves in Rome were considered property under the law, with no legal personhood or rights.

The conditions faced by Roman slaves were often brutal and dehumanizing. They could be subjected to severe physical punishment, sexual exploitation, and forced labor in mines, farms, and households. However, some slaves managed to attain positions of relative privilege and autonomy, particularly those with valuable skills or knowledge. For example, educated Greek slaves were highly prized by wealthy Roman families and could sometimes secure better treatment and even their freedom. This latter group could run complex international business empires on behalf of their masters and commanded a great deal of respect and authority.

The Ottoman Empire also relied heavily on slave labor. Slavery was a central pillar of Ottoman society and economy for centuries, with slaves acquired through conquest, tribute, and the devşirme system, which involved the forcible recruitment of Christian boys from conquered territories.

Slaves in the Ottoman Empire served in various roles, including as soldiers in the elite Janissary corps, bureaucrats in the imperial administration, and domestic servants in wealthy households. The conditions faced by Ottoman slaves varied widely, with some enduring harsh treatment and exploitation, while others managed to attain positions of power and influence within the imperial hierarchy.

One of the most striking aspects of slavery in these ancient societies was the practice of individuals voluntarily selling themselves into servitude. This is an important concept for History Future Now readers to comprehend and we will return to this concept later in the article.

In ancient Greece, it was not uncommon for impoverished individuals to sell themselves into slavery to escape debt or provide for their families. The Greek philosopher Diogenes, for example, was said to have been captured by pirates and sold into slavery, but he later gained his freedom and went on to become a renowned thinker.

Similarly, in ancient Rome, some individuals willingly sold themselves into slavery to gain access to the households of wealthy and influential families. This was particularly true for educated Greeks, who saw slavery as a means of social mobility and a path to eventual freedom and citizenship. The playwright Plautus, for instance, sold himself into slavery to pay off his debts, but he later gained his freedom and went on to become one of the most celebrated writers of Roman comedy.

In the Ottoman Empire, the practice of impoverished individuals voluntarily selling themselves or their children into slavery was also prevalent, particularly during times of famine or economic hardship. Some parents saw slavery as a means of ensuring their children's survival and potentially securing a better future for them within the households of the wealthy and powerful. Some slaves rose to powerful positions, demonstrating the potential for social mobility within the system. One notable example is Shajar al-Durr, a slave-concubine who became the first female Muslim ruler of Egypt in 1250. The mamlūks, an Arabic word for "owned," were trained as soldiers and rose to leadership positions upon completion of their training, becoming clients with continuing obligations to their former masters.

The institution of slavery had a corrosive effect on the moral and ethical foundations of these societies. The dehumanization and exploitation of slaves were often justified through elaborate legal and philosophical frameworks that sought to legitimize the practice. This, in turn, created a culture of inequality and oppression that permeated all aspects of social and political life.

As we anticipate the rise of humanoid robots and their potential impact on our own society, it is crucial to recognise the parallels between these advanced machines and the historical institution of slavery. Robots are not sentient beings and cannot suffer in the same way that human slaves did. However, their integration into the workforce raises similar questions about the displacement of human labor, the concentration of wealth and power, and the ethical implications of creating a class of entities designed solely to serve the needs and desires of their owners.

In addition, the practice of individuals voluntarily selling themselves into slavery in ancient societies raises troubling questions about the potential impact of widespread automation on the most vulnerable members of our own society. Like in Greece,  Rome and the Ottoman Empire,  we should expect that people will opt to sell themselves into slavery in order to pay off debts or to try to move up the social ladder. There are already parallels in rich Middle Eastern countries today where south Asians are brought in to work to pay off debts and end up having their passports confiscated and restrictions placed on them. These ‘meat based’ humanoid workers may become status symbols in an era of cheap, incredibly capable robots. They may be integrated into households alongside humanoid robots in the same way that an educated Greek who has sold himself into slavery to pay of debts would integrate into a household with large Gaulish tribesmen captured in battle.

Part 3: The Echoes of Mass Migration

The next important concept to acknowledge is the harsh reality that mass migration of poorer people into western societies is not that different from the mass capture of slaves that were integrated into the Roman and Ottoman empires. They are not slaves but they share many characteristics and occupy the same economic and labour niche. As such they are a precursor of what may yet happen.

In the modern era, the phenomenon of mass migration shares striking similarities with the historical institution of slavery, particularly in terms of the economic and social impact on host societies. While migrants are not subjected to the same level of legal and physical coercion as slaves, they often find themselves in positions of vulnerability and exploitation, driven by economic necessity to seek opportunities in foreign lands.

One of the most prominent examples of mass migration in recent history is the movement of workers from Mexico and Central America to the United States. These migrants, often fleeing poverty and violence in their home countries, have played a crucial role in the American economy, particularly in sectors such as agriculture, construction, and service industries. Interestingly, they are smaller and look physically different to most of the European heritage Americans that employ them, in the same way that African slaves looked different to European and Jewish descent slave owners in the American South. This helps make them ‘others,’ blinding people to the realities of their lot in life.

In the agricultural sector, for instance, migrant workers from Mexico and Central America already make up a significant portion of the workforce. According to data from the U.S. Department of Agriculture, more than 70% of hired farmworkers in the United States are foreign-born, with the vast majority of them being Mesoanericans  coming from Mexico and Central America. These workers often face grueling conditions, with long hours, low pay, and exposure to hazardous chemicals and extreme weather conditions.

Despite their essential role in the American economy, migrant farmworkers are often denied basic labor protections and benefits, such as minimum wage, overtime pay, and workers' compensation. Many are also subjected to wage theft, harassment, and abuse by their employers, who take advantage of their vulnerable status and fear of deportation.

In the construction industry, migrant workers from Latin America have also played a significant role, particularly in states such as California, Texas, and Florida. According to a report by the National Association of Home Builders, immigrants make up nearly a quarter of the construction workforce in the United States, with many coming from Mexico and other Latin American countries.

Like migrant farmworkers, construction workers often face dangerous working conditions, with high rates of injury and fatality on the job. They are also vulnerable to exploitation by employers, who may misclassify them as independent contractors to avoid paying benefits and taxes, or withhold wages altogether.

The impact of mass migration on the American economy has been significant, with both positive and negative consequences. On the one hand, migrant workers have helped to fill crucial labor shortages in industries such as agriculture and construction, and have contributed to the growth and prosperity of the American economy as a whole.

On the other hand, the influx of low-wage migrant labor has also had a negative impact on wages and working conditions for native-born workers, particularly those in low-skilled occupations. This has led to social and political tensions as mass migration has undermined the bargaining power of American workers and contributed to the erosion of the middle class.

The parallels between mass migration and the institution of slavery are particularly striking when one considers the role of economic coercion in driving both phenomena. Just as slaves in ancient societies were often compelled to sell themselves into bondage to escape poverty or debt, many modern-day migrants are driven by economic necessity to leave their homes and families behind in search of better opportunities abroad.

This economic coercion is often reinforced by a range of other factors, such as political instability, violence, and environmental degradation in migrants' home countries. In Central America, for example, decades of civil war, gang violence, and natural disasters have created a perfect storm of push factors, driving millions of people to seek refuge and opportunity in the United States and other countries.

At the same time, the demand for cheap, exploitable labor in host countries such as the United States has created a powerful pull factor, drawing migrants across borders in search of work. This demand is often fueled by the same kinds of economic and political interests that drove the slave trade in centuries past, with employers and industries seeking to maximise profits by minimising labor costs.

The result is a system that, while not legally codified in the same way as slavery, nonetheless shares many of its essential features. Like slaves, migrant workers are often treated as disposable commodities, valued only for their labor and subject to exploitation and abuse by those in positions of power.

This exploitation takes many forms, from the physical and sexual abuse of migrant women in domestic and agricultural work, to the wage theft and unsafe working conditions faced by migrant men in construction and other industries. It is a system that, like slavery, is built on a foundation of inequality and coercion, with the most vulnerable members of society bearing the heaviest burden.

Of course, there are important differences between the institution of slavery and the modern phenomenon of mass migration. Unlike slaves, migrant workers are not legally owned by their employers and are theoretically free to leave their jobs and return home. In practice, however, many migrants find themselves trapped in a cycle of debt and exploitation, unable to escape the conditions that drove them to migrate in the first place.

Moreover, while slavery was a legally sanctioned institution in many ancient societies, the exploitation of migrant workers today is often carried out in violation of national and international laws. This has led to calls for greater regulation and enforcement of labor standards, as well as for more humane and equitable immigration policies that prioritize the rights and well-being of migrants.

Despite these differences, however, the parallels between slavery and mass migration remain striking. Robots are going to blur the boundaries even further.

Part 4: The Rise of the Planet of Robots

The widespread adoption of humanoid robots and advanced AI systems will have a profound impact on society, fundamentally transforming the nature of work, social relationships, and the very fabric of our daily lives. As robots become increasingly capable and affordable, they will reshape the economy, politics, and culture in ways that are both exciting and deeply unsettling.

One of the most immediate and devastating impacts of the rise of robots will be on employment. As machines become capable of performing an ever-wider range of tasks, millions of jobs across virtually every sector of the economy will be at risk of automation. According to a report by the McKinsey Global Institute, as many as 800 million jobs worldwide could be automated by 2030, with low-skilled and low-wage workers being the most vulnerable to displacement. In the United States alone, it is estimated that up to 47% of jobs are at risk of being automated in the coming decades, with sectors such as manufacturing, retail, and transportation being particularly vulnerable. These numbers are so huge that they are difficult to imagine. Try visualising this: two people standing next to each other, shoulder to shoulder with no gaps. 800 million people standing shoulder to shoulder is the equivalent of a line that would wrap around the entire equatorial circumference of the Earth (40,075 km) almost 10 times or is almost the distance from the Earth to the Moon. That is a lot of people who are going to end up unemployed or underemployed.

The impact of this job displacement will be particularly acute for low-skilled and low-wage workers, who are already vulnerable to exploitation and marginalization. In sectors such as manufacturing and agriculture, where industrial (not humanoid) robots are already being deployed at scale, the introduction of even more advanced machines could lead to the wholesale elimination of entire occupations and industries, leaving millions of workers without a means of supporting themselves and their families. This will also have a significant impact on the migrant workers discussed above, who often rely on these types of jobs for their livelihood. As robots begin to compete with migrants for roles in farms, factories, and domestic service, we can expect to see growing tensions and potentially even backlash in the form of robot destruction.

It is important to highlight that the mundane and repetitive tasks that robots are likely to take over are not just a source of income for many people, but also a fundamental part of their sense of purpose and identity. The feeling of being a useful contributor to one's family and society is essential for psychological well-being, and the loss of this sense of purpose could lead to widespread feelings of uselessness, unhappiness, and even depression. Moreover, the passive nature of a robot-dominated society may lead to a general lack of motivation and a reluctance to actively pursue one's goals, further exacerbating the negative psychological impacts.

Just as the influx of slaves in ancient societies like Greece, Rome, and the Ottoman Empire led to the displacement of free workers and the suppression of wages, the rise of robots may exacerbate existing inequalities and create new forms of social and economic stratification. The wealthy elite who own and control these technologies may be able to further consolidate their power and influence, while the masses are left to struggle for scraps.

In this context, some individuals may seek to escape the economic insecurity and social dislocation of the robot age by actively selling themselves into a form of modern-day slavery. Just as in ancient Greece and Rome, where impoverished individuals would sometimes voluntarily enter into servitude as a means of securing a basic livelihood, the rise of robots may create a situation in which some people feel they have no other choice but to surrender their freedom and autonomy in exchange for a modicum of security and stability.

It is worth noting that slavery existed for centuries in ancient civilizations and was generally accepted as a normal part of social and economic life. The elites who benefited from the labor of slaves justified the practice through elaborate legal and philosophical frameworks, while the masses were often too preoccupied with their own survival to mount effective resistance.

In this sense, the robot age may represent a kind of neo-classical period, in which a small class of tech-savvy lords and ladies preside over a vast underclass of robots and under employed people. The concentration of wealth and power in the hands of a few may become even more extreme than it is today, leading to a society that is deeply stratified and fundamentally unequal.

The impact of robots on the domestic sphere is likely to be particularly significant. As robots become increasingly capable of handling a wide range of household tasks, from cooking and cleaning to childcare and home maintenance, traditional gender roles and family dynamics may shift dramatically. Robots will be able to work 24 hours a day (except for recharging times) and 365 days a year. Once the core household chores are done they may help out with DIY activities or engage in making household items such as furniture and bespoke clothing.

The availability of robots for intimate tasks like childcare and eldercare could have profound effects on family life, raising questions about the nature of emotional bonds and the potential for robots to be used as tools of surveillance and control within the home. In the same way that the porn industry were pioneers of VHS tapes, DVDs, online streaming video and VR, we should fully expect robots to be capable of performing sexual activities. With partners that always love you, no matter how badly you have let yourself go, and will never say no due to headaches, this will also have an impact on intimate relationships. Total fertility rates, which are already below population replacement levels in all parts of the world, except Africa, will fall further. It is ironic to think that robots will help fill the expected labour shortage as our populations decline and will help cause an even faster population decline

Of course, the rise of robots and AI could also have some positive impacts on society, particularly in terms of freeing up human time and energy for more creative and fulfilling pursuits. If machines are able to take over many of the repetitive and mundane tasks that currently occupy much of the workforce, humans may have more opportunities to engage in activities that are intrinsically rewarding and socially beneficial, such as art, music, scientific research, and community service.

In ancient Greece, for example, the widespread use of slave labor allowed a small class of free citizens to devote themselves to intellectual and artistic pursuits, leading to a flourishing of philosophy, literature, and scientific inquiry. Similarly, in the robot age, the liberation of humans from the drudgery of work could lead to a new golden age of creativity and discovery, helping to address some of the most pressing challenges facing humanity today, from climate change and resource depletion to disease and poverty.  This is a nice thought. But how likely is it?

In the face of widespread job displacement and social disruption caused by the rise of robots and AI, governments may need to consider implementing programs similar to the grain dole and public festivals of ancient Rome, which provided citizens with a basic standard of living and opportunities for social engagement.

Under the Roman grain dole system, which was introduced in the late 2nd century BCE, the state distributed free grain to citizens as a means of alleviating poverty and ensuring social stability. This program was later expanded to include other essentials and provided sustenance for a significant portion of the population. Additionally, the Roman state provided citizens with numerous public holidays and festivals each year, often tied to religious observances or military victories, as a way of building social cohesion and loyalty. During these events, the state provided free food and entertainment, including banquets, gladiatorial games, and theatrical performances.

In the context of the robot age, similar programs could take the form of a universal basic income, providing every citizen with a guaranteed minimum income regardless of employment status, as well as the creation of new public spaces and social infrastructure to foster meaningful activities and interactions. One way to think of a robot is to compare it to a modern smartphone. A smartphone is not just a phone. It has replaced a huge number of objects ranging from phones, CDs, books, televisions, maps, encyclopaedias, fax machines, photocopiers- the list goes on. A robot could displace a similar number of items that we currently need to buy fully created. With household robots able to garden, cook, clean, make furniture, pottery, bespoke clothing and house extensions, it could be that peoples’ need to participate in the monetary economy is significantly lower than it is today. A modest universal basic income top up may be sufficient.

Ultimately, the impact of humanoid robots and AI on society will depend on the choices we make as a species in the coming years and decades. If we can harness these technologies to serve human flourishing and the greater good, we may usher in a brighter and more fulfilling future. However, if we allow these technologies to be used primarily for oppression, exploitation, and control, we risk creating a dystopian future that erodes the very essence of our humanity.

Part 5: The Future of Work in Space

As we grapple with the profound challenges and opportunities posed by the rise of robotics and automation here on Earth, some visionaries are already looking to the stars for the next great frontier of human endeavor. The idea of space exploration and colonization has long captured the imagination of scientists, entrepreneurs, and policymakers alike, offering a tantalizing vision of a future in which humanity spreads beyond the confines of our planet and establishes a permanent presence in the cosmos.

Central to this vision is the idea of human-robot collaboration, in which advanced machines work alongside human astronauts and colonists to explore, settle, and develop new worlds. This collaboration is already taking shape in the form of robotic missions to Mars, the Moon, and beyond, with machines like NASA's Perseverance rover paving the way for eventual human exploration and settlement.

History Future Now mentions this as the conventional science fiction view was that the negative aspects of robots on Earth described in Part 4 could be offset by the excitement of humans going into space and colonising other planets, moons and asteroids.

However, as we look to the future of work in space, it is becoming increasingly clear that robots and artificial intelligence will play an even more central role than previously imagined. With their ability to operate in harsh and dangerous environments, to perform complex tasks with precision and efficiency, and to work tirelessly without the need for life support systems, food, water, or rest, robots are better suited to the challenges of extraterrestrial labor than humans.

Indeed, the colonization of space will be largely driven by robots and AI, with machines taking on the bulk of the work required to establish and maintain human settlements on other worlds. This could include everything from the construction of habitats and infrastructure to the extraction of resources and the cultivation of crops, as well as the exploration and scientific study of alien environments.

So while humans may eventually end up in space, the bulk of the work will be better suited to robots. Space is likely not to be man’s final frontier but rather the dawn of planet-fulls of robots.

Conclusion - Navigating the Uncharted Territory of Robotics and Society

Throughout this article, History Future Now has explored the complex web of issues surrounding the rise of robotics and AI, drawing on insights from history, economics, and social science to shed light on the challenges and opportunities that lie ahead. We have seen how the development of humanoid robots in particular echoes the historical institution of slavery, with machines designed to serve the interests of their owners and creators, often at the expense of human workers and communities.

We have examined the parallels between the institution of slavery in ancient civilizations and the modern phenomenon of mass migration, highlighting the ways in which the desire for cheap and exploitable labor has shaped human societies throughout history. And we have considered how the rise of robotics and AI could exacerbate these trends, leading to widespread job displacement, increased inequality, and social unrest.

At the same time, we have also explored the potential benefits of human-machine collaboration, particularly in the context of space exploration and colonization. We have seen how robots and AI systems could help to unlock new frontiers of discovery and achievement, enabling humanity to spread beyond the confines of our planet and establish a permanent presence in the cosmos.

However, even as we glimpse the vast possibilities of this new era, we must also grapple with the profound ethical and social implications of these technologies.

The rise of robotics and AI raises fundamental questions about the nature of work, the distribution of wealth and power, and the very meaning of human existence itself. These are big questions. And nobody is being consulted as to whether we want these changes. They are simply going to happen, like it or not.

Appendix

You will find below some videos of the robots discussed in Part 1. It is likely that these links will be broken as time passes by, but they are accurate at the time of writing in April 2024. The purpose of these videos is to highlight to the average reader the remarkable advances made in robots over the last 24 months. The issues raised in this article will be faced sooner that we may want or realise.

General video showing most of the companies listed in Part 1. Watch this first as it gives the best overview as of 23 March 2024.

https://youtu.be/ubVoZik-Q2w?feature=shared

Boston Dynamics, is the grand-daddy in the field of robotics and continues to push the envelope with its Atlas humanoid robot. Although Atlas may not fall under the $50,000 price point in the near future, its advanced agility, strength, and dexterity make it a benchmark for humanoid robot capabilities. From parkour skills and backflips to navigating complex terrain and performing delicate tasks, Atlas showcases the cutting edge of humanoid robotics and serves as an inspiration for future advancements in the field. Boston Dynamics has been on this path for a long time and it is ahead of most. But new companies have emerged since 2022 that have made impressive progress and may end up eclipsing Boston Dynamics.

Latest version of Atlas

https://youtu.be/raYWbqbZbmc?feature=shared

Boston Dynamics showing impressive mobility

https://youtu.be/-e1_QhJ1EhQ?feature=shared

Boston Dynamics with better hands

https://youtu.be/_65E_033Ahk?feature=shared

The dog version and how they are training it

https://youtu.be/Kf9WDqYKYQQ?feature=shared

And also the dog in real world applications

https://youtu.be/VVpgsd9Jsw0?feature=shared

Tesla's humanoid robot, Optimus, is another notable contender in the field. Optimus is designed to perform a wide range of tasks in factories and homes. Tesla is relatively new to the field but has made huge advances in less than a year. By leveraging Tesla's expertise in AI and electric motors, Optimus aims to achieve smooth and efficient movement at a target price point below $20,000, making it a strong candidate for widespread adoption. They have only been doing robots since 2022 but what they have done is impressive. Musk has also demonstrated that he understands the challenges of mass production, which is a big advantage over other companies in this space.

Musk on Optimus development

https://youtu.be/1PzTv9cHNOI?feature=shared

Optimus in action

https://youtu.be/UFPgkNdT6mg?feature=shared

Optimus Gen 2 introduction

https://youtu.be/cpraXaw7dyc?feature=shared

Optimus compared to Kepler

https://youtu.be/hkiZj2AT-ok?feature=shared

Optimus general information

https://youtu.be/NOljjZP75Gg?feature=shared

Figure.ai's Figure 01 robot is a general-purpose, AI-powered humanoid designed for diverse applications in manufacturing, logistics, and beyond. With a focus on affordability and versatility, Figure 01 is intended to be self-reliant and capable of working alongside humans in various tasks. Its human-like form factor allows for seamless integration with existing infrastructure, making it a promising alternative to single-function robots across industries. They have done a deal with OpenAI which has resulted in some remarkable videos of it operating.

Working with OpenAI

https://youtu.be/GiKvPJSOUmE?feature=shared

Engineered Arts' Ameca robot is different and pushes the boundaries of human-like appearance and interaction. With its incredibly realistic facial expressions and detailed hands, Ameca represents a significant step forward in human-robot interaction. Ameca's lifelike features showcase the potential for more natural and intuitive communication between humans and robots.

Conversation with Ameca showing speed of thought and natural sounding conversations

https://youtu.be/nnboHTfYsfk?feature=shared Focus just on the face neck and human interactions.

https://youtu.be/VXlpF3DrVP0?feature=shared

Unitree H1 is another impressive humanoid robot, focusing on power and athleticism. It is likely that Chinese companies will end up dominating this field. Holding the record for the fastest bipedal robot at 3.3 meters per second, Uniteee H1 demonstrates remarkable strength and dynamic movements. Its powerful electric motors and athletic capabilities position it as a strong candidate for tasks requiring both speed and power, while still being expected to be around $90,000.

Video introduction including its smaller dog sized companion

https://youtu.be/WWAnJX889j0?feature=shared

And it can do backflips

https://youtu.be/V1LyWsiTgms?feature=shared

Agility Robotics' bipedal robot, Digit, showcases impressive capabilities in logistics and warehouse automation. With its ability to walk, run, climb stairs, open doors, and handle payloads up to 40 lbs, Digit is a prime example of the dynamic movement and balance achieved through advanced control systems and powerful electric motors.

Boring factory work:

https://youtu.be/s1t3Qi2WnEI?feature=shared

Using LLMs to navigate.

https://youtu.be/CnkM0AecxYA?feature=shared

Sanctuary AI's Phoenix robot aims to strike a balance between strength and dexterity, with the ability to handle payloads up to 55 lbs. Utilizing the "Carbon" control system, Phoenix is designed to perform complex and coordinated movements, making it well-suited for a variety of applications. Like many other humanoid robots in development, Phoenix is expected to fall within the target price range of under $50,000.

General introduction

https://youtu.be/fDCRdwZUgIU?feature=shared

Finally NVIDIA, the chipmaker behind most of the AI systems around the world, has announced it is developing an operating system and chipset specifically for humanoid robots. This is an important innovation as many companies, such as Boston Dynamics, are clearly able to build sophisticated hardware but may not be able to develop the brains at the same time.  NVIDIA aims to be the Microsoft and Intel of the robot world.

How NVIDIA project Groot will provide the brains for a range of robots

https://youtu.be/WXIKs_6WyqE?feature=shared

NVIDIA with other companies vs Tesla approach

https://youtu.be/vHKNqFyhXyE?feature=shared

There are other companies out there as well. This field is moving rapidly and employees are starting to move from company to company bringing in best practices and ideas. By 2025 a lot more progress will have been made.